Symptoms

Prostate cancer

• Weak urine flow.
• Increased frequency of urination.
• Frequent urination at night (nocturia).
• Urinary urgency.
• Difficulty starting urination.
• Persistent pain in the lower back, pelvis, or thighs.

 

Testicular cancer

• Painless lump or swelling in the testicle.
• Feeling of heaviness in the scrotum, sudden fluid build-up.
• Aching in the lower abdomen or groin.
• Testicular cancer may produce hormones that cause breast enlargement or pain.

 

Penile cancer

• Thickening of the penile skin or appearance of rashes.
• Presence of lumps or ulcers on the penis, which may be painless or cause slight pain.
• Unpleasant odour.
• Unexplained discharge or bleeding from the penis or foreskin.
• Swelling of the lymph nodes in the groin.

 

Diagnosis

Prostate cancer

Initial screening

• Prostate-Specific Antigen test (PSA test).

 

Further tests / staging

• Biopsy.
• Chest X-ray.
• Isotope bone scan.
• PSMA Positron Emission Tomography-Computed Tomography (PSMA PET-CT).
• Computerised Tomography (CT scan).
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scan.

 

Testicular cancer

Initial screening

• Self-examination.
• Doctor’s examination.
• Scrotal ultrasound.
• Cancer index (i.e. tumour markers) AFP, β-hCG, and LDH are used to measure testicular cancer markers. However, tumour markers are generally used to track treatment response and recurrence rather than to diagnose cancer.

 

Further tests / staging

• Orchiectomy for testing.
• Chest X-ray.
• Computerised Tomography (CT scan).
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scan.

 

Penile cancer

Initial screening

• Self-examination.
• Doctor’s examination.
• Ultrasound.

 

Further tests / staging

• Biopsy.
• Computerised Tomography (CT scan). 
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scan.